Why did Reconstruction Fail?

The Civil War was a very important event in American History that affected the entire nation. According to Foner Reconstruction is “the rebuilding of a shattered nation” (Foner, 521) and it would prove to be a challenging era for politicians, former slaves, white northerners and white southerners. The purpose of the reconstruction was to rebuild the United States so that it could be a “wholly free” country for all of its citizens (522). However, the unwillingness for many in the south to accept black people as their equals is what caused the reconstruction era to fail.

The reconstruction era established a group called the Freedmen’s Bureau in 1865 whose purpose was to “establish schools, provide aid to the poor and aged, settle disputes between whites and blacks and among freedpeople, and secure for former slaves and white Unionist equal treatment before the courts” (528). Marshall Harvey Twitchell was an ex Union veteran who was a part of the Freedmen’s Bureau who had moved to the south in hopes of making changes between racial relations. According to Twitchell, his “duty was to inform both black and white of their changed relations from master to slave to employer and employee, giving them the additional information that it was the order of the government that old master and slave should remain where they had been” (pbs.org, C1). It was because of Unionist or carpetbaggers-- northerners who made the south their home after the war (Foner, 546) like Twitchell that caused widespread dissent by white southerners.

However, the Freedmen’s Bureau was only one aspect of the Reconstruction era that caused many southern whites to resent the new laws that were being implemented. Believing that neither northern or southern whites would accept black suffrage, moderate Republicans accepted Johnson’s plan, which was extremely lenient on the southern states and disenfranchised blacks, with the belief that it was flawed so they proposed two bills in 1866. The first was to extend the Freedmen’s Bureau, and the second was the Civil Rights Bill—it defined all persons borne in the United States as citizens and spelled out rights they were to enjoy without regard to race (537).  In March 1867, Congress adopted the Reconstruction act, “which temporarily divided the South into five military districts and called for the creation of new state governments, with black men given the right to vote” (538).  This therefore led to the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment which stated all persons born in the United States were citizens, and it empowered the federal government to protect the rights of all Americans (537). This of course was important because there was no longer the issue of whether black people born in the United States rights were protected and it prohibited states from “denying them equal protection of the law” (537). But, it is very important to know that the Reconstruction act was only adopted by congress because they were upset by the policies of President Johnson (Foner).

The ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution—Which grants African American men the right to vote by declaring that the “right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude” (The Library of Congress, C1). This action did not only upset the men of the south it also upset many of the feminist who were fighting for women’s suffrage as well. For instance, Susan B Anthony in 1872 went to the polls in Rochester, NY and cast a ballot in the presidential election, citing her citizenship under the Fourteenth Amendment (Francis, C1). However, she was arrested, convicted and fined $100, which she never paid (Francis, C1). Yet, it is imperative to recognize that it was not just the southern states that were affected by these drastic changes. They applied to the north as well “The Reconstruction amendments voided many northern laws discriminating on the basis of race” (Foner, 540). 

Therefore, in these instances we can see how the process of reconstructing the nation in these radical ways led to it failing. But, one of the most important groups, the American Anti-Slavery Society, that helped to fight for the rights of the disenfranchised black people disbanded. One of its members, veteran abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, stated “this wonderful, quiet, sudden transformation of four millions of human beings from…the auction-block to the ballot-box” (540). This also was an important and influential reason why the reconstruction failed. Another important reason reconstruction failed is because many of the poor whites who had initially supported the Republican Party no longer supported them. The realization that their situation was not getting better with all of the new reconstruction acts that were passed made them very resentful towards blacks as well (548). Yet, according to Foner, the “most basic reason for opposition to Reconstruction, however, was that most white southerners could not accept the idea of former slaves voting, holding office, and enjoying equality before the law” (549).  Thus began the “reign of terror” in the south against both blacks and white Republicans (549). The most notorious group for committing heinous crimes against supporters of Reconstruction and blacks were the Ku Klux Klan. They targeted both Unionist and blacks without regard to the law, and were able to place fear in all of those against old southern values. The attacks had gotten so bad that the southern governments called upon Washington for help. Once President Grant dispatched federal marshals, with troops in some areas, they were able to disband the organization (550).

However, it was during this time that northerners began to falter in support of Reconstruction. It also led to the widespread resurgence of racism in the north (551). Also, “the country plunged into a severe economic depression” and the issues of reconstruction were no longer important to Republicans (552). By the election of 1876 it was clear that the north was no longer in favor of Reconstruction as they began electing Confederate’s and southerners back to positions in the government. Because these officials were given these posts again there were more killings of Republicans and blacks. Even though there had always been southerners discouraging blacks from voting, it was more widespread and the federal government no longer helped to protect their rights. It was clear that the north’s resurgence of racism had catapulted hate in both poor and wealthy whites. It was during this time that we saw white people coming together in the decision that black people were still unacceptable and not worthy of equal rights (552).

As a result, after discussing all of these events it is very clear to see why Reconstruction failed. Although the federal government enacted the Civil Rights Bill, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments it was only done so to defy President Johnson. They believed that his plan was flawed and he would not listen to Congress and eventually led to the Radicals and Moderates working together to pass these Reconstruction Acts, and to the impeachment of Johnson (537). Yet, in passing these laws they were trying to improve the position of blacks, and at the same time deeply disenfranchising southern and northern whites (552). With the passing of each law it angered southern whites and took out revenge on white Unionist and black people. Also, even though laws were passed to include black people into equal rights in the eyes of the law, they denied women suffrage (543). The Reconstruction was successful in amending laws into the Constitution that gave freedom to black people, and acknowledged their rights as U.S citizens, and even the right to vote for black men; however, it completely neglected a race of people who were once the masters of said slaves. There was no transition period for anyone and this I believe helped the defeat of Reconstruction eminent.   

Works Cited

Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty! An American History. New York: W. W. Norton and Company Inc, 2009. Print

Francis, Roberta W. The History Behind the Equal Rights Amendment: The Equal Rights Amendment. The Equal Rights Amendment. Web 5 May, 2011. http://www.equalrightsamendment.org/era.htm, 2011.

Library of Congress. The 15th Amendment to the Constitution. Primary Documents in American History. Web 8 Apr. 2011. http://www.equalrightsamendment.org/era.htm

Pbs.org. African in American. The Civil War and emancipation 1861-1865. Web 1998. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2967.html

A Struggle for Reform

Change within a society is necessary when injustice of another group of people, or a person is concerned. However, change can only take place if individuals truly understand the importance of making a difference for a group of people or a single person collectively. This includes fighting for those who are different racially, religiously, and socioeconomically. The reform movements of the late 18^th century and 19^th century did just that. However, although certain reformers were concerned with the plight of black slaves racial inequalities within the movements still persisted, even when fighting to makes changes for society as a whole.

There were many different reform movements that helped influence and shape society. These groups were generally made of people from different facets of life, but they generally fought for rights that would help better their position within society. There were some who wanted to make certain changes that they thought were proper for religious people to follow. There were groups of people who thought that living in their own utopian community and following their own standards of living was a great way to initiate change. There were workers reform movements, as well as women's rights movements. And, it was possible, as shown in Foner, that reform groups could fight for multiple movements at the same time. Abolishing of slavery was important to women as well as some men. It is important to note that "nearly all of the groups worked to convert public opinion to their cause" (Foner, 410).

Although many of the utopian communities that were established wanted to make change in society, they only thought doing so would work within in their small societies. For instance, those that were inspired by religious conviction weren't really concerned about proving how their community would affect the larger society. They were more concerned with creating a more homogenous society with whites. In the community known as the Shakers, they believed that God had dual personalities and women and men were spiritually equal (Foner, 413). The group was founded by Mother Ann Lee a "religious exhorter and claimed that Christ had directed her to emigrate with her followers to America" (413). They were able to establish a society that deviated from the traditional family life, both men and women lived in separate cabins and they were celibate. Even though this society was able to live the lives they wanted within their community, and trade with the outside world to maintain sustenance, they did not intend to incorporate racial equality.

Another community that was established with the same make up as the Shakers was Oneida. It was founded by Minister John Humphrey Noyes in 1848. They rejected individual accumulation of private property and the traditional family. Noyes was greatly influenced by a religious revival. He preached that he and his followers were perfect and achieved a state of complete sinlessness (414). Another factor that made this community different from the Shakers was complex marriage. That was the idea that a man could approach any woman and propose sexual relations and she could deny or accept it; it would then be registered in a record book (414). It was also a dictatorial society. People could only become a part of the society if they proved they understood the teachings of Noyes. Even though the society was extreme in that it wanted to deviate from the traditional ways of society it did not focus on the development of good racial relationships either.

Though both of the above communities had an ideal to deviate from main stream society and make a home that would be a utopia for them, neither focused on the advancement of blacks. Even though both of the groups believed that all of their members were equal spiritually it seems they didn't intend to have an effect on the larger society as a whole. There were also utopian communities that weren't centered on religion, and many believed that women should be treated as equals with their husbands they weren't concerned with race relations either (Foner). I think the main reason for these establishments were for the founders of the community's personal beliefs. They were upset about the way mainstream society had been mistreating and neglecting them, but the idea of race wasn't central to their beliefs.

However, there was a group of reformers that were able to fight for their issues and also fight for another group separate from them. The women's reform movement or feminism was especially important during this period. These were generally middle class women and working women who wanted to be given the same rights as men. As argued by Sarah Grimke, a women's right activist and abolitionist, "…They will be enabled to see the simple truth, that God has made no distinction between men and women as moral beings…To me it is perfectly clear that whatsoever it is morally right for a man to do, it is morally right for a woman to do" (Flexner, 48). The women that worked in the factories grew tired of the mistreatment they received at work as well. A factory called Lowell had a Female Labor Reform Association, in one of their plights for justice a "factory tract" was issued and spoke of women as "nothing more nor less than slaves in every sense of the word! Slaves to a system of labor which requires them to toil from five until seven o'clock…" (Zinn, 89).

The women recognized that in fighting for their rights they too had an obligation to help those unfairly in bondage. One female sympathizer, as quoted by Sarah Grimke said "I was sitting in my chamber, weeping over the miseries of the slave, and putting up my prayers for his deliverance from bondage, when in the midst of my meditations it occurred to me that my tears, unaided by effort, could never melt the chain of the slave. I must be up and doing" (Flexner, 48). The feminist, as they were called realized that the freedom they longed for in society was the same that black men, women, and children yearned for in slavery. The women's form of slavery was coined "slavery of sex" which empowered the women's movement to develop an all-encompassing critique of male authority and their own subordination" (Foner, 438). Feminist abolitionist was very integral pieces in advocating for the abolition of slavery. These women travelled throughout the 24 States of America, as well as internationally. It was recognized that support from people from different parts of the globe where also key to helping with both female rights and the freedom rights of black slaves. The feminist movement, although at the time didn't receive the equal rights they were fighting for, were able to influence public life and "posed a challenge to some of society's central beliefs—that the capacity for independence and rationality were male traits, that the world was properly divided into public and private realms, and that issues of justice and freedom did not apply to relations within the family" (435). And, they also were strongly concerned with race relations within America as a whole.

Along with the feminist abolitionist were the men of the North that also fought for the cause. In strong opposition to the "Colonization" of blacks these men felt it was their duty to expel the greatest evil from America's soil without displacing an entire population. Colonization was the idea for "gradual abolition of slavery and the settlement of black Americans in Africa" (421). This form of abolition believed that slavery was a sin and it contradicted the Declaration of Independence. However, even though the men were fighting for a just cause, it was still plagued with sexism and racism. A male abolitionist, Samuel Gridely Howe did not support his wife's activism within the female suffrage movement "because he felt it caused her to neglect her domestic relations" (439). As, we can see even with the white men fighting for the abolition of slavery, they were still guilty of racism towards blacks and discriminating against women.

Although there were many other reform movements, I believe that these were the most influential of the time. However, as with all of the movements they were started by people who were marginalized within society and desired to have more freedom and recognition of their rights to be treated as equals. But, that did not hold true for all races. Though the female abolitionist and male abolitionist worked at trying to gain freedom for black slaves, race relations were still terrible. Most of the reform group's policies are still noticeable within society today and some are even laws. And, for the most part I believe it is safe to conclude that many of the reform groups intended to make substantial changes within society so that it would be better for all white people. But, were blacks are concerned only two groups, feminist abolitionist and white male abolitionist, wanted to free them from slavery.

Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States, (New York, 1970), p. 48.

Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty! An American History. 2nd Ed. New York: Norton &

Company. 2009. Print.

 

Zinn, Howard. A People's History Of The United States.Volume1:American Beginnings To

Reconstruction. Vol. 1. New York: The New Press. 2003. Print

 

 

 

Race Relations and Slavery in America Through the Eyes of an Enslaved Woman

Learning about history is very important. Although some may think history to be boring and a waste of time I believe that only true historians and other scholars understand its importance.  If properly studied and researched history leads as an example of things we should do and those that we should not do. Teaching plays a very integral part in learning about history. Great teachers help to produce the greatest thinkers and scholars. For instance, I think that one of the most important aspects of the United States history is slavery and race relations. And in order to fully grapple with both of those subjects a teacher would need to start from the beginning of America’s existence. There are many books and articles a teacher could choose to use for that purpose, but I think the most important should come from the source directly.

Slavery in the United States was a very horrific practice that whites imposed against blacks. The first African slaves arrived in the America’s in 1502, and were thought to be inferior to the Anglo-Saxon race. Therefore, the harsh treatment that was imposed upon them was thought to be fitting and appropriate. Over the course of the years, and with the settlements of colonies became a more strenuous form of slavery, and that came to be known as plantation slavery. All of those years were important because race relations and slavery were significant to the establishment of the colonies.

The best historical source that I consider to be significant in explaining racial relationships and slavery within the colonies which became the United States of America was a narrative by a slave named Harriet Jacobs called Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl printed in 1861.  In her narrative she explains the trials and tribulations slaves went through in their lives. But, her piece was particularly important because it was from a woman’s perspective which before that time had never occurred. She had been born a slave and went through lots of turmoil. Jacobs had written the narrative to “arouse the women of the North to a realizing sense of the condition of two millions of women at the South, still in bondage, suffering what I suffered, and most of them far worse” (Jacobs 440).

Jacobs was born into slavery but was treated very kindly by her mistress. She had taught her to read and treated her well until the day she passed away (447). Jacobs’s situation was unique because she wasn’t aware that she was a slave until her mother passed away when she was a small child. Her father was a carpenter and was allowed to work for others as long as he paid a portion to the mistress. He was a proud man and didn’t think of himself as a slave which was a very dangerous thing to do especially since many of the over seers were jealous of him (450). 

Jacobs’s narrative was important during the time that she wrote it because that’s when the abolitionist wanted to involve the women of the North.  In January 1, 1861 President Lincoln had declared slavery to be unlawful in the Confederate states (Historyorb.com) and it was imperative, in Jacobs view, that white women of the North really knew how cruel slavery was. She wanted them to be active in the fight for equality and freedom for all people. There was so much going on the year 1861 which helped Jacobs cause, as well as all slaves.

Slavery, especially chattel slavery was very degrading and inhumane that Southern whites participated in. Although Harriet and her younger brother were not exposed to the harsh reality of slavery at a young age they learned about it as they got older. When their mistress passed away they were given to her family. This family, known as the Flint’s was quite different from the previous master.  They mistreated their slaves and that included both of the Jacobs children.

It’s important to note here that slavery was very important to the makeup of the South. They literally depended upon the labor provided by the slaves. Even though black people were thought of to be both ignorant and deserving of their plight in life the women were used as concubines. That often made the mistresses of the house extremely violent, rude and jealous of the women (455). Although Jacobs wasn’t a concubine to her master, as he wanted, she did decide to have an affair with another white slave owner to thwart Dr. Flint’s advances. But, this however did not stop his advances it only made him upset with her.
Throughout the course of slavery black women were always sexually exploited by white men, and Jacobs wanted the white women of the North to understand that. Even with the civil war at hand Jacobs needed for the audience to understand that this war was essential to the freedom of people who were mistreated unfairly.

Works Cited Page

Jacobs, Harriet. Incidents In The Life Of A Slave Girl. Ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr.New York: Penguin Group. 1987. Print.

Yellin, Fagan Jean. Introduction. Incidents In The Life Of A Slave Girl:Written by Herself. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. 1987. Print